REFERENCES
1. Iliff JJ, Wang M, Liao Y, et al. A paravascular pathway facilitates CSF flow through the brain parenchyma and the clearance of interstitial solutes, including amyloid β. Sci Transl Med 2012;4:147ra111.
2. Xie L, Kang H, Xu Q, et al. Sleep drives metabolite clearance from the adult brain. Science 2013;342:373-7.
3. Iliff JJ, Lee H, Yu M, et al. Brain-wide pathway for waste clearance captured by contrast-enhanced MRI. J Clin Invest 2013;123:1299-309.
4. Bohr T, Hjorth PG, Holst SC, et al. The glymphatic system: current understanding and modeling. iScience 2022;25:104987.
5. Iliff JJ, Wang M, Zeppenfeld DM, et al. Cerebral arterial pulsation drives paravascular CSF-interstitial fluid exchange in the murine brain. J Neurosci 2013;33:18190-9.
6. Mestre H, Tithof J, Du T, et al. Flow of cerebrospinal fluid is driven by arterial pulsations and is reduced in hypertension. Nat Commun 2018;9:4878.
7. Bilston LE, Fletcher DF, Brodbelt AR, Stoodley MA. Arterial pulsation-driven cerebrospinal fluid flow in the perivascular space: a computational model. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin 2003;6:235-41.
9. Alshuhri MS, Gallagher L, Work LM, Holmes WM. Direct imaging of glymphatic transport using H217O MRI. JCI Insight 2021;6:141159.
10. Peng S, Liu J, Liang C, Yang L, Wang G. Aquaporin-4 in glymphatic system, and its implication for central nervous system disorders. Neurobiol Dis 2023;179:106035.
11. Chen W, Liang C, Peng S, et al. Aquaporin-4 activation facilitates glymphatic system function and hematoma clearance post-intracerebral hemorrhage. Glia 2025;73:368-80.
12. Wichmann TO, Damkier HH, Pedersen M. A brief overview of the cerebrospinal fluid system and its implications for brain and spinal cord diseases. Front Hum Neurosci 2021;15:737217.
13. Gomolka RS, Hablitz LM, Mestre H, et al. Loss of aquaporin-4 results in glymphatic system dysfunction via brain-wide interstitial fluid stagnation. Elife 2023;12:e82232.
14. Iliff JJ, Chen MJ, Plog BA, et al. Impairment of glymphatic pathway function promotes tau pathology after traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci 2014;34:16180-93.
15. Holth JK, Fritschi SK, Wang C, et al. The sleep-wake cycle regulates brain interstitial fluid tau in mice and CSF tau in humans. Science 2019;363:880-4.
16. Harrison IF, Ismail O, Machhada A, et al. Impaired glymphatic function and clearance of tau in an Alzheimer’s disease model. Brain 2020;143:2576-93.
17. Mortensen KN, Sanggaard S, Mestre H, et al. Impaired glymphatic transport in spontaneously hypertensive rats. J Neurosci 2019;39:6365-77.
18. Benveniste H, Lee H, Volkow ND. The glymphatic pathway: waste removal from the CNS via cerebrospinal fluid transport. Neuroscientist 2017;23:454-65.
19. Louveau A, Plog BA, Antila S, Alitalo K, Nedergaard M, Kipnis J. Understanding the functions and relationships of the glymphatic system and meningeal lymphatics. J Clin Invest 2017;127:3210-9.
20. Zhao L, Tannenbaum A, Bakker ENTP, Benveniste H. Physiology of glymphatic solute transport and waste clearance from the brain. Physiology 2022;37:349-62.
21. Li G, Cao Y, Tang X, Huang J, Cai L, Zhou L. The meningeal lymphatic vessels and the glymphatic system: potential therapeutic targets in neurological disorders. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2022;42:1364-82.
22. Benveniste H, Liu X, Koundal S, Sanggaard S, Lee H, Wardlaw J. The glymphatic system and waste clearance with brain aging: a review. Gerontology 2019;65:106-19.
23. Peng W, Achariyar TM, Li B, et al. Suppression of glymphatic fluid transport in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol Dis 2016;93:215-25.
24. Rasmussen MK, Mestre H, Nedergaard M. The glymphatic pathway in neurological disorders. Lancet Neurol 2018;17:1016-24.
25. Gao Y, Liu K, Zhu J. Glymphatic system: an emerging therapeutic approach for neurological disorders. Front Mol Neurosci 2023;16:1138769.
26. Lilius TO, Mortensen KN, Deville C, et al. Glymphatic-assisted perivascular brain delivery of intrathecal small gold nanoparticles. J Control Release 2023;355:135-48.
27. Zhang R, Li J, Li X, Zhang S. Therapeutic approaches to CNS diseases via the meningeal lymphatic and glymphatic system: prospects and challenges. Front Cell Dev Biol 2024;12:1467085.
28. Calias P, Banks WA, Begley D, Scarpa M, Dickson P. Intrathecal delivery of protein therapeutics to the brain: a critical reassessment. Pharmacol Ther 2014;144:114-22.
29. Fowler MJ, Cotter JD, Knight BE, Sevick-Muraca EM, Sandberg DI, Sirianni RW. Intrathecal drug delivery in the era of nanomedicine. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2020;165-6:77-95.
30. Schreiner TG, Menéndez-González M, Schreiner OD, Ciobanu RC. Intrathecal therapies for neurodegenerative diseases: a review of current approaches and the urgent need for advanced delivery systems. Biomedicines 2025;13:2167.
31. Toh CH, Siow TY. Factors associated with dysfunction of glymphatic system in patients with glioma. Front Oncol 2021;11:744318.
32. Ma Q, Schlegel F, Bachmann SB, et al. Lymphatic outflow of cerebrospinal fluid is reduced in glioma. Sci Rep 2019;9:14815.
33. Formolo DA, Yu J, Lin K, et al. Leveraging the glymphatic and meningeal lymphatic systems as therapeutic strategies in Alzheimer’s disease: an updated overview of nonpharmacological therapies. Mol Neurodegener 2023;18:26.
34. Hynynen K, McDannold N, Vykhodtseva N, Jolesz FA. Noninvasive MR imaging-guided focal opening of the blood-brain barrier in rabbits. Radiology 2001;220:640-6.
35. Choi JJ, Selert K, Gao Z, Samiotaki G, Baseri B, Konofagou EE. Noninvasive and localized blood-brain barrier disruption using focused ultrasound can be achieved at short pulse lengths and low pulse repetition frequencies. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2011;31:725-37.
36. Konofagou EE, Tung YS, Choi J, Deffieux T, Baseri B, Vlachos F. Ultrasound-induced blood-brain barrier opening. Curr Pharm Biotechnol 2012;13:1332-45.
37. Mainprize T, Lipsman N, Huang Y, et al. Blood-brain barrier opening in primary brain tumors with non-invasive MR-guided focused ultrasound: a clinical safety and feasibility study. Sci Rep 2019;9:321.
38. Aryal M, Azadian MM, Hart AR, et al. Noninvasive ultrasonic induction of cerebrospinal fluid flow enhances intrathecal drug delivery. J Control Release 2022;349:434-42.
39. Gong Y, Xu K, Ye D, et al. In vivo two-photon microscopy imaging of focused ultrasound-mediated glymphatic transport in the mouse brain. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2025;45:1281-92.
40. Kadry H, Noorani B, Cucullo L. A blood-brain barrier overview on structure, function, impairment, and biomarkers of integrity. Fluids Barriers CNS 2020;17:69.
41. Chen H, Konofagou EE. The size of blood-brain barrier opening induced by focused ultrasound is dictated by the acoustic pressure. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2014;34:1197-204.
42. Wang X, Yin Y, Zhou H, et al. Drug delivery pathways to the central nervous system via the brain glymphatic system circumventing the blood-brain barrier. Exploration 2025;5:20240036.
43. Mathiisen TM, Lehre KP, Danbolt NC, Ottersen OP. The perivascular astroglial sheath provides a complete covering of the brain microvessels: an electron microscopic 3D reconstruction. Glia 2010;58:1094-103.
44. Xu D, Zhou J, Mei H, Li H, Sun W, Xu H. Impediment of cerebrospinal fluid drainage through glymphatic system in glioma. Front Oncol 2021;11:790821.
45. Bothwell SW, Janigro D, Patabendige A. Cerebrospinal fluid dynamics and intracranial pressure elevation in neurological diseases. Fluids Barriers CNS 2019;16:9.
46. Engelhorn T, Savaskan NE, Schwarz MA, et al. Cellular characterization of the peritumoral edema zone in malignant brain tumors. Cancer Sci 2009;100:1856-62.
47. Maugeri R, Schiera G, Di Liegro CM, Fricano A, Iacopino DG, Di Liegro I. Aquaporins and brain tumors. Int J Mol Sci 2016;17:1029.
48. Nishioka K, Kawamura M, Iima M, et al. The glymphatic system in oncology: from the perspective of a radiation oncologist. J Radiat Res 2025;66:343-53.
49. Lohela TJ, Lilius TO, Nedergaard M. The glymphatic system: implications for drugs for central nervous system diseases. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2022;21:763-79.
50. Lan YL, Wang H, Chen A, Zhang J. Update on the current knowledge of lymphatic drainage system and its emerging roles in glioma management. Immunology 2023;168:233-47.
51. Murdock MH, Yang CY, Sun N, et al. Multisensory gamma stimulation promotes glymphatic clearance of amyloid. Nature 2024;627:149-56.
52. Nizamutdinov D, Ezeudu C, Wu E, Huang JH, Yi SS. Transcranial near-infrared light in treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Front Pharmacol 2022;13:965788.
53. Sun X, Dias L, Peng C, et al. 40 Hz light flickering facilitates the glymphatic flow via adenosine signaling in mice. Cell Discov 2024;10:81.
54. Semyachkina‐Glushkovskaya O, Fedosov I, Shirokov A, et al. Photomodulation of lymphatic delivery of liposomes to the brain bypassing the blood‐brain barrier: new perspectives for glioma therapy. Nanophotonics 2021;10:3215-27.
55. Wang Y, Monai H. Transcranial direct current stimulation alters cerebrospinal fluid-interstitial fluid exchange in mouse brain. Brain Stimul 2024;17:620-32.
56. Sundman MH, Liu Y, Chen NK, Chou YH. The glymphatic system as a therapeutic target: TMS-induced modulation in older adults. Front Aging Neurosci 2025;17:1597311.
57. Vijayakrishnan Nair V, Kish BR, Inglis B, et al. Human CSF movement influenced by vascular low frequency oscillations and respiration. Front Physiol 2022;13:940140.
58. Choi S, Baek IS, Lee K, Kim SK. Low-frequency auricular vagus nerve stimulation facilitates cerebrospinal fluid influx by promoting vasomotion. Korean J Physiol Pharmacol 2025;29:109-16.
59. Elias WJ, Lipsman N, Ondo WG, et al. A randomized trial of focused ultrasound thalamotomy for essential tremor. N Engl J Med 2016;375:730-9.
60. Meng Y, Suppiah S, Mithani K, Solomon B, Schwartz ML, Lipsman N. Current and emerging brain applications of MR-guided focused ultrasound. J Ther Ultrasound 2017;5:26.
61. Rohani M, Fasano A. Focused ultrasound for essential tremor: review of the evidence and discussion of current hurdles. Tremor Other Hyperkinet Mov 2017;7:462.
63. Ye D, Chen S, Liu Y, et al. Mechanically manipulating glymphatic transport by ultrasound combined with microbubbles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023;120:e2212933120.
64. Wu CH, Liao WH, Chu YC, et al. Very low-intensity ultrasound facilitates glymphatic influx and clearance via modulation of the TRPV4-AQP4 pathway. Adv Sci 2024;11:e2401039.
65. Curley CT, Mead BP, Negron K, et al. Augmentation of brain tumor interstitial flow via focused ultrasound promotes brain-penetrating nanoparticle dispersion and transfection. Sci Adv 2020;6:eaay1344.
66. Meng Y, Abrahao A, Heyn CC, et al. Glymphatics visualization after focused ultrasound-induced blood-brain barrier opening in humans. Ann Neurol 2019;86:975-80.
67. Cho S, Kim M, Ahn J, et al. An ultrasensitive and broadband transparent ultrasound transducer for ultrasound and photoacoustic imaging in-vivo. Nat Commun 2024;15:1444.
68. Lee C, Cho S, Lee D, et al. Panoramic volumetric clinical handheld photoacoustic and ultrasound imaging. Photoacoustics 2023;31:100512.
69. Jeong H, Oh S, Choi S, Kim J, Yang J, Kim C. A hybrid diffusion model enhances multiparametric 3D photoacoustic computed tomography. Adv Sci 2026;13:e13624.
70. Park J, Choi S, Knieling F, et al. Clinical translation of photoacoustic imaging. Nat Rev Bioeng 2025;3:193-212.
71. Kim J, Heo D, Cho S, et al. Enhanced dual-mode imaging: superior photoacoustic and ultrasound endoscopy in live pigs using a transparent ultrasound transducer. Sci Adv 2024;10:eadq9960.
72. Yang F, Wang Z, Shi W, et al. Advancing insights into in vivo meningeal lymphatic vessels with stereoscopic wide-field photoacoustic microscopy. Light Sci Appl 2024;13:96.
73. Park S, Sung M, Kim H, et al. A three-dimensional photoacoustic and ultrasound automated breast volume scanner (PAUS-ABVS) for breast cancer patients. Sci Adv 2025;11:eadz8585.
74. Park J, Oh D, Yoo J, et al. Clinical ultrasound, photoacoustic, and fluorescence image-guided lymphovenous anastomosis microsurgery via a transparent ultrasound transducer array. Nat Commun 2025;16:9853.
75. Ahn J, Lee J, Kim K, et al. Smarter biopsy decisions in thyroid nodules via dual-modal photoacoustic and ultrasound imaging. Sci Adv 2025;11:eady6173.
76. Misra S, Yoon C, Kim KJ, et al. Deep learning-based multimodal fusion network for segmentation and classification of breast cancers using B-mode and elastography ultrasound images. Bioeng Transl Med 2023;8:e10480.
77. Oh D, Lee D, Heo J, et al. Contrast agent-free 3D renal ultrafast doppler imaging reveals vascular dysfunction in acute and diabetic kidney diseases. Adv Sci 2023;10:e2303966.
78. Park EY, Cai X, Foiret J, et al. Fast volumetric ultrasound facilitates high-resolution 3D mapping of tissue compartments. Sci Adv 2023;9:eadg8176.
79. Lee H, Xie L, Yu M, et al. The effect of body posture on brain glymphatic transport. J Neurosci 2015;35:11034-44.
80. Bouta EM, Blatter C, Ruggieri TA, et al. Lymphatic function measurements influenced by contrast agent volume and body position. JCI Insight 2018;3:96591.
