REFERENCES
1. Alsaç, E. P.; Nelson, D. L.; Yoon, S. G.; et al. Characterizing electrode materials and interfaces in solid-state batteries. Chem. Rev. 2025, 125, 2009-119.
2. He, M.; Hector, L. G.; Dai, F.; et al. Industry needs for practical lithium-metal battery designs in electric vehicles. Nat. Energy. 2024, 9, 1199-205.
3. Tang, C.; Yu, L.; Jiang, Q.; et al. Polymer-based electrolyte for lithium-based high-energy-density and safe energy storages devices: strategy and mechanisms. Renewables 2024, 2, 297-340.
4. Wu, F. Jointly Create a brilliant future of superior development for the global lithium battery industry. Energy. Mater. Adv. 2025, 6, 0186.
5. Zhang, H.; Zeng, Z.; Cheng, S.; Xie, J. Recent progress and perspective on lithium metal battery with nickel-rich layered oxide cathode. eScience 2024, 4, 100265.
6. Wang, Z.; Xia, J.; Ji, X.; et al. Lithium anode interlayer design for all-solid-state lithium-metal batteries. Nat. Energy. 2024, 9, 251-62.
7. Geng, N.; Lu, C.; Li, W.; et al. Fluoro-functionalized polyether electrolytes enabling high-energy-density solid-state lithium-metal batteries. Energy. Environ. Mater. 2026, 9, e70188.
8. Song, W.; Sun, R.; Chen, K.; Wang, Y.; Jian, X.; Hu, F. Molecular engineering of polymer electrolytes for lithium and sodium metal batteries. Small 2026, 22, e14635.
9. Luo, C.; Ning, C.; Huang, X.; et al. Molecular engineering of weakly solvating dinitrile electrolytes for long-lasting room-temperature lithium metal batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2025, 64, e202507051.
10. Kou, W.; Zhang, Y.; Wu, W.; Guo, Z.; Hua, Q.; Wang, J. Thin polymer electrolyte with MXene functional layer for uniform Li+ deposition in all-solid-state lithium battery. Green. Energy. Environ. 2024, 9, 71-80.
11. Tang, W.; Zhou, T.; Duan, Y.; Zhou, M.; Li, Z.; Liu, R. Nonflammable in situ PDOL-based gel polymer electrolyte for high-energy-density and high safety lithium metal batteries. Carbon. Neutraliz. 2024, 3, 386-95.
12. Huang, Z.; Lyu, H.; Greenburg, L. C.; Cui, Y.; Bao, Z. Stabilizing lithium-metal electrodes with polymer coatings. Nat. Energy. 2025, 10, 811-23.
13. Wang, Y.; Wu, Z.; Azad, F. M.; et al. Fluorination in advanced battery design. Nat. Rev. Mater. 2023, 9, 119-33.
14. Zhang, C.; Li, Z.; Wang, S.; et al. Boosting high-rate lithium metal batteries by using ether-based gel polymer electrolyte. Energy. Mater. Adv. 2025, 6, 0188.
15. Jiang, D.; Wang, X.; Yin, S.; et al. Solid-state electrolytes with vertically aligned Li+ transport channels for lithium batteries: a comprehensive review. Energy. Storage. Mater. 2025, 74, 103986.
16. Wang, Z.; Chen, J.; Fu, J.; Li, Z.; Guo, X. Polymer-based electrolytes for high-voltage solid-state lithium batteries. Energy. Mater. 2024, 4, 400050.
17. Shen, Z.; Cheng, Y.; Sun, S.; Ke, X.; Liu, L.; Shi, Z. The critical role of inorganic nanofillers in solid polymer composite electrolyte for Li+ transportation. Carbon. Energy. 2021, 3, 482-508.
18. Shan, C.; Wang, Y.; Liang, M.; et al. A comprehensive review of single ion-conducting polymer electrolytes as a key component of lithium metal batteries: from structural design to applications. Energy. Storage. Mater. 2023, 63, 102955.
19. Shi, J.; Nguyen, H.; Chen, Z.; et al. Nanostructured block copolymer single-ion conductors for low-temperature, high-voltage and fast charging lithium-metal batteries. Energy. Mater. 2023, 3, 300036.
20. Han, J.; Lee, M. J.; Lee, K.; et al. Role of bicontinuous structure in elastomeric electrolytes for high-energy solid-state lithium-metal batteries. Adv. Mater. 2022, 35, 2205194.
21. Bard, A.J.; Faulkner, L.R.; White, H.S. Electrochemical methods: fundamentals and applications, 3rd ed.; John Wiley & Sons, 2022. https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Electrochemical+Methods%3A+Fundamentals+and+Applications%2C+3rd+Edition-p-9781119334057 (accessed 2026-04-28).
22. Atkins, P.W.; De Paula, J.; Keeler, J. Atkins’ physical chemistry, 12th ed.; Oxford University Press, 2023. https://global.oup.com/ukhe/product/atkins-physical-chemistry-9780198847816?cc=us&lang=en& (accessed 2026-04-28).
23. Evans, J.; Vincent, C. A.; Bruce, P. G. Electrochemical measurement of transference numbers in polymer electrolytes. Polymer 1987, 28, 2324-8.
24. Bruce, P. G.; Vincent, C. A. Steady state current flow in solid binary electrolyte cells. J. Electroanal. Chem. Interfacial. Electrochem. 1987, 225, 1-17.
25. Hutter, J.; Iannuzzi, M.; Schiffmann, F.; Vandevondele, J. cp2k: atomistic simulations of condensed matter systems. WIREs. Comput. Mol. Sci. 2013, 4, 15-25.
26. Vandevondele, J.; Hutter, J. Gaussian basis sets for accurate calculations on molecular systems in gas and condensed phases. J. Chem. Phys. 2007, 127, 114105.
27. Buin, A.; Pietsch, P.; Xu, J.; et al. Materials processing routes to trap-free halide perovskites. Nano. Lett. 2014, 14, 6281-6.
28. Grimme, S.; Antony, J.; Ehrlich, S.; Krieg, H. A consistent and accurate ab initio parametrization of density functional dispersion correction (DFT-D) for the 94 elements H-Pu. J. Chem. Phys. 2010, 132, 154104.
29. Cui, J.; Liu, F.; Lu, Z.; et al. Repeatedly recyclable 3D printing catalyst-free dynamic thermosetting photopolymers. Adv. Mater. 2023, 35, 2211417.
30. Han, D.; Kim, S.; Kim, Y.; et al. Regulating segmental dynamics for ion clusters in polymer binders to realize high-areal-capacity electrodes in lithium batteries. Energy. Environ. Sci. 2025, 18, 7514-26.
31. Gerdroodbar, A. E.; Alihemmati, H.; Safavi-mirmahaleh, S.; et al. A review on ion transport pathways and coordination chemistry between ions and electrolytes in energy storage devices. J. Energy. Storage. 2023, 74, 109311.
32. He, Y.; Wang, C.; Zou, P.; Lin, R.; Hu, E.; Xin, H. L. Anion-tethered single lithium-ion conducting polyelectrolytes through UV-induced free radical polymerization for improved morphological stability of lithium metal anodes. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202308309.
33. Tao, F.; Yan, K.; Dong, C.; et al. Electric-dipole coupling ion-dipole engineering induced rational solvation-desolvation behavior for constructing stable solid-state lithium metal batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2025, 64, e202503037.
34. Liu, Y.; Jin, Z.; Liu, Z.; et al. Regulating the solvation structure in polymer electrolytes for high-voltage lithium metal batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2024, 63, e202405802.
35. Hong, H.; Zhu, J.; Wang, Y.; et al. Metal-free eutectic electrolyte with weak hydrogen bonds for high-rate and ultra-stable ammonium-ion batteries. Adv. Mater. 2023, 36, 2308210.
36. Xia, M.; Fu, H.; Lin, K.; et al. Hydrogen-bond regulation in organic/aqueous hybrid electrolyte for safe and high-voltage K-ion batteries. Energy. Environ. Sci. 2024, 17, 1255-65.
37. Xue, S.; Zhou, Y.; Zhang, Z.; Hou, K.; He, M.; Liu, X. “Dragging” effect induced formation of AGGs-rich solvation structures in lithium metal batteries. J. Energy. Storage. 2024, 95, 112558.
38. Shi, T.; Hou, R.; Zheng, L.; et al. Modulating double-layer solvation structure via dual-weak-interaction for stable sodium-metal batteries. Adv. Energy. Mater. 2025, 15, 2405803.
39. Yi, T.; Zhao, E.; He, Y.; Liang, T.; Wang, H. Quantification and visualization of spatial distribution of dendrites in solid polymer electrolytes. eScience 2024, 4, 100182.
40. Zhou, P.; Zhang, X.; Xiang, Y.; Liu, K. Strategies to enhance Li+ transference number in liquid electrolytes for better lithium batteries. Nano. Res. 2022, 16, 8055-71.
41. Han, X.; Jiang, H.; Mu, P.; et al. Helmholtz plane regulation empowers PF6- permselectivity towards high coulombic efficiency dual ion battery of 5.5 V. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2024, 64, e202412753.
42. Li, Y.; Ma, S.; Zhao, Y.; et al. Synergetic control of Li+ transport ability and solid electrolyte interphase by boron-rich hexagonal skeleton structured all-solid-state polymer electrolyte. Energy. Environ. Mater. 2023, 7, e12648.
43. Pan, Q.; Zhang, S.; Gui, X.; et al. Carbonyl-engineered acrylate-based solid polymer electrolyte for high-performance lithium metal batteries. Adv. Energy. Mater. 2025, 15, e02815.
44. Zhang, H.; Deng, J.; Xu, H.; et al. Molecule crowding strategy in polymer electrolytes inducing stable interfaces for all-solid-state lithium batteries. Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2403848.
45. Qi, S.; Li, M.; Gao, Y.; et al. Enabling scalable polymer electrolyte with dual-reinforced stable interface for 4.5 V lithium-metal batteries. Adv. Mater. 2023, 35, 2304951.
46. Park, J.; Lee, D.; Kim, S.; et al. Fluorine-, nitrogen-, and boron-functionalized polymer electrolytes for advanced lithium metal batteries. ACS. Nano. 2025, 19, 15220-55.
47. Yao, N.; Sun, S. Y.; Chen, X.; et al. The anionic chemistry in regulating the reductive stability of electrolytes for lithium metal batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2022, 61, e202210859.
48. Zhao, C.; Lu, Y.; Yan, K.; et al. Tailoring the chemical/electrochemical response in a quasi-solid polymer electrolyte enables the simultaneous in situ construction of superior cathodic and anodic interfaces. Adv. Energy. Mater. 2024, 14, 2304532.
49. Chen, X.; Chu, F.; Li, D.; Si, M.; Liu, M.; Wu, F. In situ polymerized fluorine-free ether gel polymer electrolyte with stable interface for high-voltage lithium metal batteries. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 35, 2421965.
50. Jiang, Y.; Liu, L.; Liu, Y.; et al. A novel orientation aliphatic ketone-based liquid crystal polymer electrolyte for high-voltage solid-state lithium metal batteries. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 35, 2502613.
51. Li, C.; Zhong, Y.; Liao, R.; et al. Robust and antioxidative quasi-solid-state polymer electrolytes for long-cycling 4.6 V lithium metal batteries. Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, 2500142.
52. Miao, X.; Hong, J.; Huang, S.; et al. In situ gel polymer electrolyte with rapid Li+ transport channels and anchored anion sites for high-current-density lithium-ion batteries. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 35, 2411751.
53. Peng, J.; Lu, D.; Wu, S.; et al. Lithium superionic conductive nanofiber-reinforcing high-performance polymer electrolytes for solid-state batteries. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2024, 146, 11897-905.
54. Zhang, Q.; Bian, T.; Wang, X.; Shi, R.; Zhao, Y. Unlocking mechanism of anion and cation interaction on ion conduction of polymer based electrolyte in metal batteries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2024, 64, e202415343.
55. Zhang, S.; Li, Z.; Zhang, Y.; et al. Moderate Li+-solvent binding for gel polymer electrolytes with stable cycling toward lithium metal batteries. Energy. Environ. Sci. 2025, 18, 3807-16.
56. Wang, Y.; Zhang, S.; Chen, Z.; et al. Long-life lithium metal batteries enabled by in situ solidified polyphosphoester-based electrolyte. Adv. Mater. 2025, 38, e14210.
