fig4

Figure 4. Digital twin modeling of EV-target cell interactions and virtual pharmacodynamics. This schematic illustrates how digital twin systems may represent the multiscale behavior of engineered EVs after administration. Such models could incorporate EV-target cell recognition, ligand-receptor binding, receptor availability, endocytosis, intracellular trafficking, downstream signaling networks, and associated changes in recipient-cell states. Disease microenvironmental variables, including cytokines, extracellular matrix composition, immune context, and vascular transport, could also be incorporated to support early-stage virtual pharmacodynamic assessment and potentially predict therapeutic responses across molecular, cellular, and microenvironmental scales. Created in BioRender. EV: Extracellular vesicle; ECM: extracellular matrix.