REFERENCES
1. Jang, H.; Lee, J.; Beak, C. J.; Biswas, S.; Lee, S. H.; Kim, H. Flexible neuromorphic electronics for wearable near-sensor and in-sensor computing systems. Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, e2416073.
2. Shi, Q.; Dong, B.; He, T.; et al. Progress in wearable electronics/photonics—moving toward the era of artificial intelligence and internet of things. InfoMat 2020, 2, 1131-62.
3. Kim, S. H.; Baek, G. W.; Yoon, J.; et al. A bioinspired stretchable sensory-neuromorphic system. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, e2104690.
4. Linh, V. T. N.; Han, S.; Koh, E.; Kim, S.; Jung, H. S.; Koo, J. Advances in wearable electronics for monitoring human organs: bridging external and internal health assessments. Biomaterials 2025, 314, 122865.
5. Gu, Y.; Zhang, T.; Chen, H.; et al. Mini review on flexible and wearable electronics for monitoring human health information. Nanoscale. Res. Lett. 2019, 14, 263.
6. Kim, H.; Kim, D.; Kim, J.; et al. Advances and perspectives in fiber-based electronic devices for next-generation soft systems. npj. Flex. Electron. 2025, 9, 84.
7. Pan, S.; Wu, S.; Ming, J.; Ling, H. Toward energy-efficient machine vision: advances in optoelectronic memristors. Adv. Opt. Mater. 2025, 13, e01992.
8. Yao, P.; Wu, H.; Gao, B.; et al. Fully hardware-implemented memristor convolutional neural network. Nature 2020, 577, 641-6.
9. Schuman, C. D.; Kulkarni, S. R.; Parsa, M.; Mitchell, J. P.; Date, P.; Kay, B. Opportunities for neuromorphic computing algorithms and applications. Nat. Comput. Sci. 2022, 2, 10-9.
10. Shim, H.; Sim, K.; Ershad, F.; et al. Stretchable elastic synaptic transistors for neurologically integrated soft engineering systems. Sci. Adv. 2019, 5, eaax4961.
11. Upadhyay, N. K.; Jiang, H.; Wang, Z.; Asapu, S.; Xia, Q.; Joshua Yang, J. Emerging memory devices for neuromorphic computing. Adv. Mater. Technol. 2019, 4, 1800589.
12. Lee, J. W.; Han, J.; Kang, B.; Hong, Y. J.; Lee, S.; Jeon, I. Strategic development of memristors for neuromorphic systems: low-power and reconfigurable operation. Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, 2413916.
13. Zhang, J.; Dai, S.; Zhao, Y.; Zhang, J.; Huang, J. Recent progress in photonic synapses for neuromorphic systems. Adv. Intell. Syst. 2020, 2, 1900136.
14. Chen, X.; Chen, B.; Jiang, B.; et al. Nanowires for UV-vis-IR optoelectronic synaptic devices. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2208807.
15. Sun, Y.; Ding, Y.; Xie, D. Mixed-dimensional van der Waals heterostructures enabled optoelectronic synaptic devices for neuromorphic applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31, 2105625.
16. Lee, J.; Jeong, B. H.; Kamaraj, E.; et al. Light-enhanced molecular polarity enabling multispectral color-cognitive memristor for neuromorphic visual system. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 5775.
17. Jiang, T.; Wang, Y.; Huang, W.; et al. Retina-inspired organic neuromorphic vision sensor with polarity modulation for decoding light information. Light. Sci. Appl. 2023, 12, 264.
18. Ahmed, T.; Tahir, M.; Low, M. X.; et al. Fully light-controlled memory and neuromorphic computation in layered black phosphorus. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2004207.
19. Jiang, T.; Wang, Y.; Zheng, Y.; et al. Tetrachromatic vision-inspired neuromorphic sensors with ultraweak ultraviolet detection. Nat. Commun. 2023, 14, 2281.
20. Ren, Q.; Zhu, C.; Ma, S.; et al. Optoelectronic devices for in-sensor computing. Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, 2407476.
21. Wang, J.; Ilyas, N.; Ren, Y.; et al. Technology and integration roadmap for optoelectronic memristor. Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2307393.
22. Shim, S.; Kim, S.; Lee, D.; et al. Infrared-triggered retinomorphic artificial synapse electronic device containing multi-dimensional van der Waals heterojunctions. Small 2025, 21, 2410892.
23. Park, H.; Kim, D.; Kim, S.; Na, M.; Kim, Y.; Sim, K. Chemically and physically enhanced adhesion for robust interfaces in all-soft vertical organic photodetectors. Chem. Commun. 2024, 60, 9262-5.
24. Lan, L.; Huang, B.; Li, Y.; et al. Stretchable optoelectronic synapses with ultraviolet to near-infrared perception for retina-inspired computing and vision-adaptive sensing. npj. Flex. Electron. 2025, 9, 16.
25. Zhang, J.; Sun, T.; Zeng, S.; et al. Tailoring neuroplasticity in flexible perovskite QDs-based optoelectronic synaptic transistors by dual modes modulation. Nano. Energy. 2022, 95, 106987.
26. Kim, K. N.; Sung, M. J.; Park, H. L.; Lee, T. W. Organic synaptic transistors for bio-hybrid neuromorphic electronics. Adv. Electron. Mater. 2022, 8, 2100935.
27. Chang, K. C.; Liu, H.; Duan, X.; Peng, Z.; Lin, X.; Li, L. Optoelectronic dual-synapse based on wafer-level GaN-on-Si device incorporating embedded SiO2 barrier layers. Nano. Energy. 2024, 125, 109564.
28. Yin, L.; Huang, W.; Xiao, R.; et al. Optically stimulated synaptic devices based on the hybrid structure of silicon nanomembrane and perovskite. Nano. Lett. 2020, 20, 3378-87.
29. Wang, H.; Jiang, S.; Hao, Z.; et al. Molecular-layer-defined asymmetric Schottky contacts in organic planar diodes for self-powered optoelectronic synapses. J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 2022, 13, 2338-47.
30. Huang, W.; Hang, P.; Xia, X.; et al. Two-terminal self-rectifying optoelectronic synaptic devices with largest-dynamic-range updates. Appl. Mater. Today. 2023, 30, 101728.
31. Wang, K.; Wu, J.; Wang, M.; et al. A biodegradable, stretchable, healable, and self-powered optoelectronic synapse based on ionic gelatins for neuromorphic vision system. Small 2024, 20, 2404566.
32. Ren, X.; He, X.; Duan, Z.; et al. Self-powered and broadband optical synapse device based on Se-vacancy Bi2O2Se for artificial vision system application. ACS. Photonics. 2024, 11, 4990-9.
33. Dai, Y.; Hao, S.; Feng, G.; et al. A self-powered organic vision sensor array for photopic adaptation. Nano. Lett. 2025, 25, 2878-86.
34. Lao, J.; Yan, M.; Tian, B.; et al. Ultralow-power machine vision with self-powered sensor reservoir. Adv. Sci. 2022, 9, 2106092.
35. Yang, C.; Su, L.; Xia, K.; Li, X.; Liu, Y.; Li, H. Doping-modulated lateral asymmetric Schottky diode as a high-performance self-powered synaptic device. Opt. Express. 2023, 31, 31061-71.
36. Zhao, P.; Cui, M.; Li, Y.; et al. Self-powered optoelectronic artificial synapses based on a lead-free perovskite film for artificial visual perception systems. J. Mater. Chem. C. 2023, 11, 6212-9.
37. Zheng, X.; Dong, M.; Li, Q.; et al. Retina-inspired artificial synapses with UV modulated and immediate switchable plasticity. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2025, 35, 2420612.
38. Hao, Z.; Wang, H.; Jiang, S.; et al. Retina-inspired self-powered artificial optoelectronic synapses with selective detection in organic asymmetric heterojunctions. Adv. Sci. 2022, 9, 2103494.
39. Cheng, Y.; Zhang, J.; Lin, Y.; et al. Bioinspired adaptive neuron enabled by self-powered optoelectronic memristor and threshold switching memory for neuromorphic visual system. Adv. Sci. 2025, 12, 2417461.
40. Lao, J.; Jiang, C.; Luo, C.; et al. Self-powered and humidity-modulable optoelectronic synapse. Adv. Mater. Technol. 2023, 8, 2201779.
41. Huang, W.; Hang, P.; Wang, Y.; et al. Zero-power optoelectronic synaptic devices. Nano. Energy. 2020, 73, 104790.
42. Miao, X.; Zhang, Y.; Lin, Y.; Lei, H.; Min, T.; Pan, Y. Robust self-powered optoelectronic synapses based on epitaxial InSe/GaN heterojunction with interfacial charge-trapping layer. Adv. Opt. Mater. 2024, 12, 2400358.
43. Qian, X.; Zhang, F.; Li, X.; et al. Artificial self-powered and self-healable neuromorphic vision skin utilizing silver nanoparticle-doped ionogel photosynaptic heterostructure. J. Semicond. 2025, 46, 012602.
44. Luo, X.; Chen, C.; He, Z.; et al. A bionic self-driven retinomorphic eye with ionogel photosynaptic retina. Nat. Commun. 2024, 15, 3086.
45. Sun, H. C.; Wang, Q. Y.; Qian, X. K.; et al. Asymmetric CNT-doped ionogel heterostructure with self-powered and efficient photoperception for stretchable neuromorphic visual skin. ACS. Appl. Electron. Mater. 2025, 7, 5041-9.
46. Sharma, B. L. Metal-semiconductor Schottky barrier junctions and their applications; Springer Science & Business Media, 2013. https://www.schweitzer-online.de/ebook/Sharma/Metal-Semiconductor-Schottky-Barrier-Junctions-Their-Applications/9781468446555/A46662912/ (accessed 2026-02-24).
47. Milnes, A. G.; Feucht, D. L. Heterojunctions and metal semiconductor junctions; Elsevier, 2012. https://books.google.com/books/about/Heterojunctions_and_Metal_Semiconductor.html?id=Ox3JhIg40hcC (accessed 2026-02-24).
48. Sharma, B. L.; Purohit, R. K. Semiconductor heterojunctions; Elsevier, 2015. https://books.google.com/books?hl=zh-CN&lr=&id=PzkXBQAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=Semiconductor+heterojunctions&ots=DENhXjKwUD&sig=3Mzxq0MD-ZThQ6P9OmSMhO0Wvl8#v=onepage&q=Semiconductor%20heterojunctions&f=false (accessed 2026-02-24).
49. Lu, X.; Sun, L.; Jiang, P.; Bao, X. Progress of photodetectors based on the photothermoelectric effect. Adv. Mater. 2019, 31, 1902044.
50. Lee, J.; Kim, M.; Park, S.; et al. Bandgap-engineered graphene quantum dot photosensitizers for tunable light spectrum-activated NO2 sensors. ACS. Nano. 2025, 19, 32732-43.
51. Wu, D.; Zhang, H.; Wang, Z.; et al. Advances in perovskite single crystal thin films: synthesis methods and applications in photodetection. Adv. Opt. Mater. 2024, 12, 2401131.
52. Jiang, K.; Zhang, J.; Peng, Z.; et al. Pseudo-bilayer architecture enables high-performance organic solar cells with enhanced exciton diffusion length. Nat. Commun. 2021, 12, 468.
53. Zhang, T.; Fan, C.; Hu, L.; Zhuge, F.; Pan, X.; Ye, Z. A reconfigurable all-optical-controlled synaptic device for neuromorphic computing applications. ACS. Nano. 2024, 18, 16236-47.
54. Lu, Q.; Yang, Z.; Meng, X.; et al. A review on encapsulation technology from organic light emitting diodes to organic and perovskite solar cells. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2021, 31, 2100151.
55. Arts, K.; Hamaguchi, S.; Ito, T.; et al. Foundations of atomic-level plasma processing in nanoelectronics. Plasma. Sources. Sci. Technol. 2022, 31, 103002.
56. Kim, J. T.; Song, J.; Ah, C. S. Optically readable waveguide-integrated electrochromic artificial synaptic device for photonic neuromorphic systems. ACS. Appl. Electron. Mater. 2020, 2, 2057-63.
57. Kim, S.; Im, S.; Kwak, I. C.; et al. Hardware implementation of on-chip Hebbian learning through integrated neuromorphic architecture. Adv. Mater. 2025, 37, 2506920.
58. Cui, N.; Song, Y.; Tan, C. H.; et al. Stretchable transparent electrodes for conformable wearable organic photovoltaic devices. npj. Flex. Electron. 2021, 5, 31.
59. Liu, Z.; Chen, J.; Zhan, Y.; et al. Fe3+ cross-linked polyaniline/cellulose nanofibril hydrogels for high-performance flexible solid-state supercapacitors. ACS. Sustain. Chem. Eng. 2019, 7, 17653-60.
60. Yu, X.; Chen, L.; Li, C.; et al. Intrinsically stretchable polymer semiconductors with good ductility and high charge mobility through reducing the central symmetry of the conjugated backbone units. Adv. Mater. 2023, 35, 2209896.
61. Song, E.; Kang, B.; Choi, H. H.; et al. Stretchable and transparent organic semiconducting thin film with conjugated polymer nanowires embedded in an elastomeric matrix. Adv. Electron. Mater. 2016, 2, 1500250.
62. Navaraj, W. T.; Gupta, S.; Lorenzelli, L.; Dahiya, R. Wafer scale transfer of ultrathin silicon chips on flexible substrates for high performance bendable systems. Adv. Electron. Mater. 2018, 4, 1700277.
63. Huang, L.; Chen, Z.; Nie, Z.; et al. Self-powered, low-poling-field and high-photoresponsivity perovskite-based photodetectors for neuromorphic vision. ACS. Appl. Electron. Mater. 2025, 7, 4510-9.
64. Li, P.; Shan, X.; Lin, Y.; et al. Ultra-highly linear Ga2O3-based cascade heterojunctions optoelectronic synapse with thousands of conductance states for neuromorphic visual system. Light. Sci. Appl. 2025, 14, 354.
65. Zhu, X.; Gao, C.; Ren, Y.; et al. High-contrast bidirectional optoelectronic synapses based on 2D molecular crystal heterojunctions for motion detection. Adv. Mater. 2023, 35, e2301468.
66. Liu, Z.; Wu, J.; Wang, M.; et al. A light-driven ionogel fabric synapse with strain-insensitivity and broadband response for textile photoperception. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2026, 36, e10021.
67. Tian, Y.; Chen, M.; Zhang, J.; et al. Highly enhanced luminescence performance of LEDs via controllable layer-structured 3D photonic crystals and photonic crystal beads. Small. Methods. 2018, 2, 1800104.
68. Park, J. E.; Kim, J.; Nam, J. M. Emerging plasmonic nanostructures for controlling and enhancing photoluminescence. Chem. Sci. 2017, 8, 4696-704.
69. Kim, J.; Song, S.; Kim, Y. H.; Park, S. K. Recent progress of quantum dot-based photonic devices and systems: a comprehensive review of materials, devices, and applications. Small. Struct. 2021, 2, 2000024.
70. Tian, W.; Zhou, H.; Li, L. Hybrid organic-inorganic perovskite photodetectors. Small 2017, 13, 1702107.
71. Abbott, L. F.; Nelson, S. B. Synaptic plasticity: taming the beast. Nat. Neurosci. 2000, 3, 1178-83.
72. Indiveri, G.; Liu, S. C. Memory and information processing in neuromorphic systems. Proc. IEEE. 2015, 103, 1379-97.
73. Burr, G. W.; Shelby, R. M.; Sebastian, A.; et al. Neuromorphic computing using non-volatile memory. Adv. Phys.:. X. 2017, 2, 89-124.
74. Oh, S.; Lee, J. J.; Seo, S.; Yoo, G.; Park, J. H. Photoelectroactive artificial synapse and its application to biosignal pattern recognition. npj. 2D. Mater. Appl. 2021, 5, 95.
75. Chen, Y.; Zhang, M.; Li, D.; et al. Bidirectional synaptic phototransistor based on two-dimensional ferroelectric semiconductor for mixed color pattern recognition. ACS. Nano. 2023, 17, 12499-509.
76. Wang, Y.; Zhu, Y.; Li, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Yang, D.; Pi, X. Dual-modal optoelectronic synaptic devices with versatile synaptic plasticity. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2022, 32, 2107973.
77. Hou, Y. X.; Li, Y.; Zhang, Z. C.; et al. Large-scale and flexible optical synapses for neuromorphic computing and integrated visible information sensing memory processing. ACS. Nano. 2021, 15, 1497-508.
78. Li, D.; Chen, Y.; Ren, H.; et al. An active-matrix synaptic phototransistor array for in-sensor spectral processing. Adv. Sci. 2024, 11, e2406401.
79. Li, X.; Fang, Z.; Guo, X.; et al. Light-induced conductance potentiation and depression in an all-optically controlled memristor. ACS. Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2024, 16, 27866-74.
80. Jiang, J.; Shan, X.; Xu, J.; et al. Retina-like chlorophyll heterojunction-based optoelectronic memristor with all-optically modulated synaptic plasticity enabling neuromorphic edge detection. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2024, 34, 2409677.
81. Xie, J.; Shan, X.; Zou, N.; et al. All-optically controlled memristive device based on Cu2O/TiO2 heterostructure toward neuromorphic visual system. Research 2025, 8, 0580.
82. Peng, X.; Huang, S.; Jiang, H.; Lu, A.; Yu, S. DNN+NeuroSim V2. 0: an end-to-end benchmarking framework for compute-in-memory accelerators for on-chip training. IEEE. Trans. Comput.-Aided. Des. Integr. Circuits. Syst. 2021, 40, 2306-19.
83. Chen, P. Y.; Peng, X.; Yu, S. NeuroSim+: an integrated device-to-algorithm framework for benchmarking synaptic devices and array architectures. 2017. IEEE. International. Electron. Devices. Meeting. (IEDM). 2017, 6.1.1-6.1.4.
84. Xia, L.; Li, B.; Tang, T.; Gu, P.; Chen, P. Y.; Yu, S. MNSIM: simulation platform for memristor-based neuromorphic computing system. IEEE. Trans. Comput.-Aided. Des. Integr. Circuits. Syst. 2018, 37, 1009-22.
86. Reese, M. O.; Nardes, A. M.; Rupert, B. L.; et al. Photoinduced degradation of polymer and polymer-fullerene active layers: experiment and theory. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2010, 20, 3476-83.
87. Gao, Z. M., Song, G. S., Zhang, X. M.; et al. A facile PDMS coating approach to room-temperature gas sensors with high humidity resistance and long-term stability. Sens. Actuators. B:. Chem. 2020, 325, 128810.
88. Liu, X.; Xu, Y.; Ben, K.; Chen, C.; Wang, Y.; Guan, Z. Transparent, durable and thermally stable PDMS-derived superhydrophobic surfaces. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2015, 339, 94-101.
89. Kim, Y.; Baek, J. H.; Im, I. H.; Lee, D. H.; Park, M. H.; Jang, H. W. Two-terminal neuromorphic devices for spiking neural networks: neurons, synapses, and array integration. ACS. Nano. 2024, 18, 34531-71.
90. Kim, S.; Lim, M.; Kim, Y.; Kim, H. D.; Choi, S. J. Impact of synaptic device variations on pattern recognition accuracy in a hardware neural network. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 2638.
91. Wan, Q.; Sharbati, M. T.; Erickson, J. R.; Du, Y.; Xiong, F. Emerging artificial synaptic devices for neuromorphic computing. Adv. Mater. Technol. 2019, 4, 1900037.
92. Bai, J.; Liao, L.; Zhou, H.; et al. Top-gated chemical vapor deposition grown graphene transistors with current saturation. Nano. Lett. 2011, 11, 2555-9.
93. Liu, B.; Chen, L.; Liu, G.; Abbas, A. N.; Fathi, M.; Zhou, C. High-performance chemical sensing using Schottky-contacted chemical vapor deposition grown monolayer MoS2 transistors. ACS. Nano. 2014, 8, 5304-14.
94. Ma, H.; Jen, A. K. Y.; Dalton, L. R. Polymer-based optical waveguides: materials, processing, and devices. Adv. Mater. 2002, 14, 1339-65.
95. Zhang, Y.; Wen, D.; Liu, M.; et al. Stretchable PDMS encapsulation via SiO2 doping and atomic layer infiltration for flexible displays. Adv. Mater. Interfaces. 2022, 9, 2101857.
96. Bao, R.; Wang, S.; Liu, X.; et al. Neuromorphic electro-stimulation based on atomically thin semiconductor for damage-free inflammation inhibition. Nat. Commun. 2024, 15, 1327.
97. Kang, J.; Lim, Y. W.; Lee, I.; et al. Photopatternable poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) for an intrinsically stretchable organic electrochemical transistor. ACS. Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2022, 14, 24840-9.
98. Kim, J. H.; Park, J. W. Foldable transparent substrates with embedded electrodes for flexible electronics. ACS. Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 2015, 7, 18574-80.
99. Milanovich, M.; Sarkar, T.; Popowski, Y.; et al. Enhancing P3HT/PCBM blend stability by thermal crosslinking using poly(3-hexylthiophene)-S,S-dioxide. J. Mater. Chem. C. 2020, 8, 7698-707.
100. Xu, J.; Wang, S.; Wang, G. N.; et al. Highly stretchable polymer semiconductor films through the nanoconfinement effect. Science 2017, 355, 59-64.
101. Wang, Y.; Chen, K. L.; Prine, N.; Rondeau-Gagné, S.; Chiu, Y. C.; Gu, X. Stretchable and self-healable semiconductive composites based on hydrogen bonding cross-linked elastomeric matrix. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2303031.
102. Park, H.; Na, M.; Shin, D.; et al. A skin-friendly soft strain sensor with direct skin adhesion enabled by using a non-toxic surfactant. J. Mater. Chem. C. 2023, 11, 9611-9.
103. Bontapalle, S.; Na, M.; Park, H.; Sim, K. Fully soft organic electrochemical transistor enabling direct skin-mountable electrophysiological signal amplification. Chem. Commun. 2022, 58, 1298-301.
